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<title>Solid-state electronics</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Solid-state electronics</span></span>

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<p><b>Solid-state electronics</b> are <a href="Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> electronics: <a href="Electronic_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic equipment">electronic equipment</a> that use <a href="Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">semiconductor devices</a> such as <a href="Transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistors">transistors</a>, <a href="Diodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodes">diodes</a> and <a href="Integrated_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated circuits">integrated circuits</a> (ICs).<sup id="cite_ref-Murty_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murty-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulos_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vaughan_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaughan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HowStuffWorks_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HowStuffWorks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is also used as an adjective for devices in which semiconductor electronics that have no moving parts replace devices with moving parts, such as the <a href="Solid-state_relay" title="Solid-state relay">solid-state relay</a>, in which transistor switches are used in place of a moving-arm electromechanical <a href="Relay" title="Relay">relay</a>, or the <a href="Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">solid-state drive</a> (SSD), a type of <a href="Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a> used in <a href="Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> to replace <a href="Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">hard disk drives</a>, which store data on a rotating disk.<sup id="cite_ref-Campardo_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campardo-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>The term <i>solid-state</i> became popular at the beginning of the semiconductor era in the 1960s to distinguish this new technology. A semiconductor device works by controlling an electric current consisting of <a href="Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> or <a href="Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">holes</a> moving within a solid crystalline piece of <a href="Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconducting</a> material such as <a href="Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, while the <a href="Thermionic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermionic">thermionic</a> <a href="Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> it replaced worked by controlling a current of electrons or <a href="Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> in a vacuum within a sealed tube.

</p><p>Although the first solid-state electronic device was the <a href="Cat's_whisker_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Cat's whisker detector">cat's whisker detector</a>, a crude <a href="Semiconductor_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor diode">semiconductor diode</a> invented around 1904, solid-state electronics started with the invention of the <a href="Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-Papadopoulos2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papadopoulos2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before that, all electronic equipment used <a href="Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>, because vacuum tubes were the only <a href="Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">electronic components</a> that could <i><a href="Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplify</a></i>—an essential capability in all electronics. The transistor, which was invented by <a href="John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="Walter_Houser_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a> while working under <a href="William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> at <a href="Bell_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Laboratories">Bell Laboratories</a> in 1947,<sup id="cite_ref-Manuel_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuel-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> could also amplify, and replaced vacuum tubes. The first transistor hi-fi system was developed by engineers at <a href="GE" class="mw-redirect" title="GE">GE</a> and demonstrated at the <a href="University_of_Philadelphia" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Philadelphia">University of Philadelphia</a> in 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-Ghandhi_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghandhi-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of commercial production, The Fisher TR-1 was the first "all transistor" <a href="Preamplifier" title="Preamplifier">preamplifier</a>, which became available mid-1956.<sup id="cite_ref-High-Fidelity-1956-Mar_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-High-Fidelity-1956-Mar-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1961, a company named Transis-tronics released a solid-state amplifier, the TEC S-15.<sup id="cite_ref-worldradiohistor_Audio-1961-Aug_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldradiohistor_Audio-1961-Aug-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The replacement of bulky, fragile, energy-hungry vacuum tubes by transistors in the 1960s and 1970s created a revolution not just in technology but in people's habits, making possible the first truly portable <a href="Consumer_electronics" title="Consumer electronics">consumer electronics</a> such as the <a href="Transistor_radio" title="Transistor radio">transistor radio</a>, <a href="Cassette_tape_recorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Cassette tape recorder">cassette tape player</a>, <a href="Walkie-talkie" title="Walkie-talkie">walkie-talkie</a> and <a href="Quartz_watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Quartz watch">quartz watch</a>, as well as the first practical <a href="Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> and <a href="Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a>. Other examples of solid state electronic devices are the <a href="Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> chip, <a href="LED" class="mw-redirect" title="LED">LED</a> lamp, <a href="Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a>, <a href="CCD_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="CCD sensor">charge coupled device (CCD) image sensor</a> used in cameras, and <a href="Semiconductor_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor laser">semiconductor laser</a>.

</p><p>Also during the 1960s and 1970s, <a href="Television_set" title="Television set">television set</a> manufacturers switched from vacuum tubes to semiconductors, and advertised sets as "100% solid state"<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though the <a href="Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tube</a> (CRT) was still a vacuum tube. It meant only the chassis was 100% solid-state, not including the CRT. Early advertisements spelled out this distinction,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but later advertisements assumed the audience had already been educated about it and shortened it to just "100% solid state". <a href="LED_display" title="LED display">LED displays</a> can be said to be truly 100% solid-state.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">Laser diode</a></li>

<li><a href="Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li>

<li><a href="Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor device</a></li>

<li><a href="Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_management_integrated_circuit" title="Power management integrated circuit">Power management integrated circuit</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFMurtyShankarRaj2013" class="citation book cs1">Murty, B.S.; Shankar, P.; Raj, Baldev; et al. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0uQnuJ7nM0wC&q=%22solid+state%22+electronics+%22gaseous+state%22+%22vacuum+tube%22&pg=PA109"><i>Textbook of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology</i></a>. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. <span class="nowrap">108–</span>109. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3642280306</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171229001318/https://books.google.com/books?id=0uQnuJ7nM0wC&pg=PA109&lpg=PA109&dq=%22solid+state%22+electronics+%22gaseous+state%22+%22vacuum+tube%22">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-29.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Papadopoulos-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Papadopoulos_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPapadopoulos2013" class="citation book cs1">Papadopoulos, Christo (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pYHBBAAAQBAJ&q=%22solid+state%22+semiconductor&pg=PA173"><i>Solid-State Electronic Devices: An Introduction</i></a>. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. <span class="nowrap">5–</span>6. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1461488361</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171229001318/https://books.google.com/books?id=pYHBBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA173&dq=%22solid+state%22+semiconductor">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-29.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Vaughan-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vaughan_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVaughan2012" class="citation mailinglist cs1">Vaughan, Francis (February 22, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://boards.straightdope.com/sdmb/archive/index.php/t-642903.html">"Why the expression "solid state" instead of simply "solid"?"</a>. <i>StraightDope message board</i> (Mailing list). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171207015958/http://boards.straightdope.com/sdmb/archive/index.php/t-642903.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 7, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 5,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-HowStuffWorks-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HowStuffWorks_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/question558.htm">"What does solid-state mean in relation to electronics?"</a>. <i>How Stuff Works</i>. <a href="InfoSpace_Holdings_LLC." class="mw-redirect" title="InfoSpace Holdings LLC.">InfoSpace Holdings LLC.</a> 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171207013255/https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/question558.htm">Archived</a> from the original on December 7, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 5,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Britannica-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/solid-state-device">"Solid state device"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica online</i>. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170801145724/https://www.britannica.com/technology/solid-state-device">Archived</a> from the original on August 1, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 5,</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Campardo-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Campardo_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCampardoTizianiIaculo2011" class="citation book cs1">Campardo, Giovanni; Tiziani, Federico; Iaculo, Massimo (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5hxzxjTsTEQC&q=%22solid+state%22+%22solid+state+disk%22+%22moving+parts%22&pg=PA85"><i>Memory Mass Storage</i></a>. Springer Science and Business Media. p. 85. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3642147524</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171229001318/https://books.google.com/books?id=5hxzxjTsTEQC&pg=PA85&dq=%22solid+state%22+%22solid+state+disk%22+%22moving+parts%22">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-29.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Papadopoulos2-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Papadopoulos2_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Papadopoulos (2013) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pYHBBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA81&dq=%22solid+state%22+amplification+transistor">Solid-State Electronic Devices: An Introduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171229001318/https://books.google.com/books?id=pYHBBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA81&dq=%22solid+state%22+amplification+transistor">Archived</a> 2017-12-29 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, p. 11, 81-83</span>

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<li id="cite_note-Manuel-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manuel_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFManuel1996" class="citation book cs1">Manuel, Castells (1996). <i>The information age : economy, society and culture</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0631215943</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43092627">43092627</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Ghandhi-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ghandhi_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sorab K. Ghandhi; Vernon Mathis; Edward Keonjian; Richard Shea; et al. (1957) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ethw.org/First-Hand:The_World%27s_First_Transistor_Hi-Fi_System">The World's First Transistor Hi-Fi System</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-High-Fidelity-1956-Mar-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-High-Fidelity-1956-Mar_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Announcement <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Audio/Archive-High-Fidelity/50s/High-Fidelity-1956-Mar.pdf">High Fidelity, March 1956</a>, p. 9</span>

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<li id="cite_note-worldradiohistor_Audio-1961-Aug-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-worldradiohistor_Audio-1961-Aug_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Announcement <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Audio/Archive-Audio/60s/Audio-1961-Aug.pdf">Audio Magazine, Aug 1961</a>, p. 44</span>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1975-sears-christmas-wish-book/page/n375/mode/1up">"1975 Sears Christmas Wishbook"</a>. <a href="Sears" title="Sears">Sears</a>. 1975. p. 378<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-07</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p1MEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA11">"RCA advertisement in Life magazine"</a>. 1971-10-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-07</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFeng2017" class="citation book cs1">Feng, Zhe Chuan, ed. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.1201/9781315151595/handbook-solid-state-lighting-leds-zhe-chuan-feng"><i>Handbook of Solid-State Lighting and LEDs</i></a>. <a href="Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781315151595">10.1201/9781315151595</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-315-15159-5</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-07</span></span>.</cite></span>

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